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Helium-enhanced planets along the upper edge of the radius valley - Nature Astronomy
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The Kepler survey revealed that the radius distribution of sub-Neptunes is bimodal: there is a scarcity of planets between 1.5 and 2.0 R⊕. However, the mechanism that creates the valley is unknown. The low mean densities of sub-Neptunes imply that they formed within a few million years and accreted primordial envelopes. Because these planets receive X-ray and UV fluxes comparable to the gravitational binding energy of their envelopes, their atmospheres are susceptible to mass loss.
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